The Age of Innocence [1] by Edith Wharton and The Color Purple [2] by Alice Walker both paint a portrait of American culture between the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. This culture appears to be masculine, with no room for the female as a manifestation other than a trophy or servant. But in both cases an unconventional woman arrives to bring attention to the fact that a female culture also exists, however small and unknown. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original Essay It's tempting to argue that both novels support the idea that women's culture is marginalized and, to a large extent, secret or clandestine. In The Age of Innocence, the use of a male narrator is critically important in relation to the idea of ​​a predominantly male American culture, particularly in the novel's late 19th century setting. Clare Virginia Eby describes the novel as a novel “balanced between the Victorian and modern eras that provocatively examines the potential for women's freedom through a male center of consciousness”[3]. Certainly Wharton, despite being a woman, uses the voice of the opposite gender, and it is from this perspective that she examines and criticizes the marginalization of female culture. Carol Wershoven supports this point as she argues that "[Newland's] is the novel's only point of view, although it is one from which Wharton ironically distances herself and supplements with authorial commentary"[4]. This leads us to question the merits of using a male narrator over a female one, providing us with yet another patriarchal voice even in a novel charged with the idea of ​​the necessary rejection of this patriarchy. One answer to this question is posed by Amy Taubin, who suggests that Wharton is one of many authors who aim to “examine the culture in which they came of age from the imagined perspective of insiders, when they themselves were outsiders”[5 ]. Taubin's view of Wharton as an “outsider” supports the idea of ​​the otherness of women and their culture within a patriarchal American society. Indeed, it is widely conceivable that Wharton chooses to tell her story from a male perspective to make her text compatible with a society in which both sexes effectively conceive of culture from the same, unique, male perspective. Ultimately, the act of transplanting her own opinions into the voice of a fictional male character allows her to gain greater influence on early 20th century audiences than she would have if she had used a woman's voice. Ironically, he subscribes to the expectations of patriarchy in order to contest and reject it. Eby proposes a vision in line with this idea, as he states that “In a moment of rebellion…Newland articulates what no female character could ever say: “Women should be free – as free as we are”” [6]. Coming from a woman, this statement may not have the credibility that a male voice has within the confines of patriarchy. Meanwhile, in The Color Purple, in stark contrast to Wharton's use of a distant male voice in The Age of Innocence, Walker uses a character whose experiences and social positioning are more in line with her own. This alignment comes primarily from the fact that she is a black woman born and raised in the Deep South of the United States during the 20th century. However, although Celie's voice is not spoken from the same immediately male perspective as Newland's voice, it is heavily influenced by the male influence of Celie's "father" and husband. This influence is, in fact, so evident that the perspectiveCelie's distorted feminine outlook is once again more in line with the perspective of the males around her than with her own raw and unaltered feminine vision, further suggesting that American culture is indeed universally conceived from the male world. prospect. For example, she refers to Alfonso as “Pa,” due to the mistaken idea he has planted in her mind that he is her father. Furthermore, she believes she is financially dependent on men despite actually being the legal owner of her late parents' house, which she believes belongs to the fake "Pa". This implies that, although both men and women indeed conceive of American culture from the male perspective, for the latter this is often the result of their blind and helpless manipulation by men and their lies. They believe the culture is masculine because that is what they have been conditioned to believe. Richard M. Gula highlights this effect as he argues that “We respond to what we see. It's that simple. But we always see from a certain perspective, from a certain framework of meaning”[7]. Indeed, in the case of American society, this framework can be seen as the framework of American patriarchy and male culture. However, Gula also suggests that the female perspective of culture is not lost forever, for by realizing that it has been hidden women can reject the male view of society in favor of their own. He claims that “Celie frees herself from male oppression only after removing the cataracts of sexism that made her blind”[8]. The "cataracts" she speaks of are symbolic of patriarchy and the way male culture represents an obscuring force that prevents women from embracing their femininity and the culture that comes with it. While both novels present a vision of the 19th and early 20th centuries as universally colored by the dominant male perspective, they also address the reasons why the female cultural counterpart remains unofficial, minor, and often effectively relegated to the underground. The America portrayed in The Age of Innocence is one in which the female voice is silenced even as the male voice is promoted. The prime example of this is the character of May, who can be seen as a character who has been conditioned to allow her perspective and preferences to be made obsolete in the face of male culture. Eby supports this idea by arguing that “it is May's “duty” neither to think, nor to speak, nor to think for herself; her duty is to wait for men to speak to her, "not to have a past", not to acquire experience, to remain an uncontaminated, or rather intact, idol"[9]. However, this reference to "duty" suggests that, although burdened, May is in fact neither naive nor blind to her husband's lies and indiscretions. This is evident as May tells Archer that “he must not think that a girl knows so little as her parents imagine. It is felt and noticed.”[10] Indeed, it can be argued that May is representative of the way in which nineteenth-century American women adhered to male perceptions of culture and society not through manipulation, as previously suggested, but simply because they were aware of society's expectations regarding their place in society. May is aware of her husband's betrayal but remains silent to remain faithful to the marital expectations and traditions prevalent in patriarchal American society. Slavoj Zizek supports this thesis by stating that "far from being a naive, fortunately unaware of her beloved's emotional turmoil, she knew everything, yet persisted in her role as a naive, thus safeguarding the happiness of their marriage." "[11]. This suggests that, rather thanSeeing herself as a victim of Newland's infidelity and acting accordingly, she prioritizes the need to satisfy her husband's misplaced passion for another woman while continuing to act as a perfect wife. Lois Tyson argues that in Wharton's novel, “women are depicted as marital commodities who sell themselves to the highest bidder in an attempt to climb the socioeconomic ladder of the American dream”[12]. The implication of this view is that women are not only aware of their oppression and expected subjugation, but they also use it to better themselves in a society where women's achievements and worth are directly related to who they marry. . It can be argued that female culture in The Age of Innocence is so minor and unofficial that success can only be achieved by allowing themselves to become pawns for the demands of male culture. Similarly, in The Color Purple, Celie begins as a completely passive character. . Her rape at the hands of Pa symbolizes the destruction of the female at the hands of the male, with her reduction to serving an instrumental purpose in satisfying his male sexual urges. She is forced to marry Pa, fulfilling the masculine cultural practice of men choosing their wives with or without their consent. After Celie and Nettie are separated by Mr_, their relationship is reduced to communication via letters sent by Nettie. This embodies the subterranean nature of female culture as the sisterly relationship is forced to survive clandestinely through discreetly written letters which, although intercepted and hidden by Mr_, are eventually discovered by Celie. Furthermore, Celie silently and secretly reacts to old Mr_'s derogatory comments about Shug. Although she mentally imagines a more obvious form of revenge as she says "I think of the ground glass, I wonder how you grind it"[13], she ultimately decides to simply spit in his drink when he isn't looking. This embodies the idea of ​​a secretive American female culture, incapable of operating in the open or rebelling against it. God and religion also play a prominent role throughout the book, as Celie's narrative comes in the form of letters addressed to “Dear God”[14]. However, her understanding of God is one that fits a nation of white, male privilege, as she imagines him as “all white…looking like a rugged white man who works in a bank”[15]. Such a male perspective on theology can be seen as a contributing factor to female culture remaining unofficial and underground. In a Victorian society with a long history of Christian values ​​and priorities, women were expected to remain passive not only socially, but also religiously, with the Bible itself fueling the prevalence of patriarchy for so long. that had become deeply ingrained in the minds of both males and females as the right, and more importantly the only, way to do things. Furthermore, by accepting the idea of ​​God as a white male, he becomes a kind of figurehead of patriarchal culture, justifying the oppression of female culture by males. The implication is that if God is a white male, then simply by being physically closer to God, white men possess a divine right to dominion. Both Wharton and Walker highlight the female oppression of nineteenth- and twentieth-century American culture by making comparable references to other nations. In The Age of Innocence, Countess Olenska arrives fresh from Europe and embodies the free-spirited and socially diverse culture prevalent in 18th-century Europe. When this vision of European society is contrasted with the American one in the same period, thethe latter's ruthless class structure and expectation of gender-based roles become even more visible. His richly European-inspired home, with a window from which his bedroom is visible, is described as "in flagrant violation of all New York property"[16], and highlights the difference between sexual openness of Europe and America's prudish sexual double standards that women had to remain virgins until marriage. The contrast is further highlighted during Newland and May's honeymoon. May attempts to “show himself to be at ease with foreigners [by becoming] more intransigently local in his references”[17]. His inability to popularize his staunchly oppressive American customs stands out from the exotically foreign surroundings. She, unlike European women, has a sense of culture completely defined by the society in which she was born and raised, with no tolerance for individuality or creativity. Walker, on the other hand, offers us a comparison between the early 20th century United States and native African culture, which actually appear to be largely similar in their treatment of women. Indeed, in her letters to Celie, Nettie describes African tribal practices of genital mutilation and facial scarring, which serve to oppress and control women's sexuality in a more violent and overt way than the American threat of social otherness. Nettie's statement that "The Olinka do not believe that girls should be educated"[18], along with an African mother's justification that "A girl is nothing to herself, only to her husband can she become something. .. the mother of his children" [19 ], underlines that women must not learn any other culture except in relation to the role they deserve in male culture. This is reminiscent of May's expectation to remain silent and virginal and to engage only in behavior that is seemingly correct for an American woman. Dave Kuhn supports this idea as he insists that “the use of African culture and rituals to dramatize the universality of women's oppression is the most significant manifestation of the African settings in The Color Purple”[20]. In the two novels, both Wharton and Walker create a solitary female character who represents proof that, even in the face of oppression and rejection, an underground female culture exists and persists. However, they also show the negative repercussions for these few women who dare to stray from their adherence to American male culture. In The Age of Innocence, this character is the enigmatic Elena Olenska. Essentially, Olenska truly represents the feminine culture that occupies the small corner of what is considered human experience by a Victorian American society. When juxtaposed with the rigid mores of nineteenth-century New York, her lack of conformity to these social expectations makes her an outcast, leading her to be seen as an interloper as she refuses to be bound by expectations, class, or gender and gives instead give priority to one's own. freedom. Elfriede Poder supports this view as she argues that “Ellen Olenska is “the other” who defines a world outside of a very specific society and represents a set of values ​​that this society (patriarchal and capitalist) actually lacks and rejects to integrate”[21]. Indeed, after arriving in New York Olenska is to all intents and purposes a social pariah, as is evident when the entire guest list at Madame Olenska's welcome dinner declines invitations to socialize with a woman who has not only left the husband, but who is also said to have abandoned her. I took a lover. The snubbing of Olenska by the entire New York elite suggests thather adherence to feminine rather than masculine culture is enough of a threat to the American patriarchy that society would rather look the other way and pretend she doesn't exist than face its own problems. society. Indeed, Olenska becomes a victim of harsh double standards regarding female versus male sexuality. Newland himself reflects on these double standards as he notes that non-martial or adulterous sexual behavior is seen as "undoubtedly foolish on the part of the man, but somehow always criminal on the part of the woman"[22]. Sexuality represents a key aspect of female culture for Olenska, and indeed for women in general, but is repressed by social expectations of women as virgin creatures who become faithful wives. Women who, like Olenska, maintain their sexuality and act accordingly are forced to do so in secret or face rejection and harsh moral judgement. Much like Wharton's Countess Olenska, Walker portrays minor, unofficial female culture through the character of Shug, who is the embodiment of raw feminine qualities. She rejects limitations on female sexuality and embraces her desires, similar but more extreme to Olenska. Mr_ similarly vocalizes Sexual double standards are present in Wharton's vision of New York, as she states that "young women are no good these days... they have their legs open for every Tom, Dick and Harry"[23] . Of course, Mr_ is also a bit promiscuous, making advances towards his wife's daughter and having Shug as a lover, but as a male in a patriarchal society this is considered much more acceptable. These double standards lead to the transformation of Shug, who is labeled with a poor reputation for being indecent. When she is ill, no one in town except Mr_ welcomes her, and society rejects her, just as invitations to Countess Olenska's welcoming party are rejected. Like Olenska, Shug is the subject of much social speculation and disapproving gossip, such as the rumor that she has "a bad female disease" or a sexually transmitted infection, indicating the strong social stigma between female sexuality and promiscuity. The church preacher indirectly refers to her as a "trumpet in short skirts... slut, heifer and scavenger"[24]. In fact, it stands as an example of why women's culture remains underground. Those, like Shug and Countess Olenska, who unashamedly adhere to violated feminine cultural norms are forced to the periphery of a patriarchal society that refuses to accept them. However, despite the apparent rejection and othering of the characters of Shug and Countess Olenska, there is a conflicting sense that these women, contrary to being anomalous stains on the portrait of patriarchy, are pioneers of an emerging opening of a feminine culture much wider. This is especially evident in Walker's novel as Shug pulls Celie out of the oppression of patriarchy and victimhood by teaching her to embrace her femininity. Sanguin supports this as he claims that “Shug plays the role of mentor to a young and naive Celie”[25]. Indeed, it is through Shug's influence, and her courageous assertion that the male perspective is not necessarily the correct perspective, that Celie ultimately frees herself from the constraints of patriarchy and comes to see the world from the perspective of a liberated woman. In contrast to Celie's description of the “portly white man”[26], Shug tells her that “God is not a he or she, but a thing”[27]. Here he rejects a crucial part of male culture, which is male-oriented theism, in favor of his own ideas about God. Bruce Sanguin highlights Shug's rejection of the culturemale of religion and God as he argues that “Shug, anticipating a postmodernist feminism, deconstructed the white man's version of the Christian faith. She has learned to do her own theology.”[28] Indeed, in transmitting her ideas to Celie, Shug takes on the role of religious teacher as she liberates her vision of God from its marginalization and her influence begins to convert others. Furthermore, both Mr_ and Newland from The Age of Innocence are ultimately more attracted to these women who openly convey their adherence to a feminine culture. Mr_, despite society's doubts about Shug's declared sexuality and femininity, openly declares his love for her even telling her father that "he should have married her when [he] had the chance"[29]. This is strikingly similar to Newland's declaration of love to the Countess when he tells her that “you are the woman I would have married if it had been possible for both of us”[30]. This implies that women who do not surrender to the strength of patriarchal culture should not be rejected by society and seen as imperfect or abominations, but rather be admired for their loyalty to their own feminine nature. Wershoven highlights this rejection of the stereotype of the Victorian American woman in The Age of Innocence as he argues that "The female intruder becomes part of a romantic triangle in which a [male] hero must choose between a conventional woman and an intruder who fails to adapt to a conventional world” [31]. Indeed, the preference that Newland has for Olenska, and that Mr_ has for Shug, outlines that female culture should not be forcibly intertwined with male culture, since their differences make them feminine. far more desirable and admirable than women like May who seem to unquestioningly conform to rigid expectations Perhaps by placing limits on the uninhibited practice of women's culture, limits are unintentionally placed on men's culture as well, as their desire for real women is left in place. largely without satisfaction. Wershoven supports this idea by stating that “The women in Wharton's novel are, with one exception, little girls who have never been allowed to grow up”[32]. In other words, with the general absence of real women like Shug and Olenska, men are forced to settle for conformist girls like May in order to remain conventional and respectable within the confines of the American patriarchy. Contrary to the idea that female culture only occupies the smallest corners of human existence, The Color Purple is actually filled with the idea that female culture, while largely underground, is actually much more widespread among the female population American than it seems. A sense of community can be seen as women help and guide each other in their struggle to be truly free. Katherine B. Payant supports this idea as she argues that “pleasures and redemption are achieved solely through love and friendship between women. The men in this novel are the enemy”[33]. This is evident in the aforementioned scene where Celie spits in old Mr_'s drink for badmouthing Shug, as Celie secretly fights not for herself, but for another woman who is unable to defend herself due to her illness . Janet Doubler Ward highlights the importance of female community for the protagonist by stating that “Celie is highlighted by her female relationships”[34], and Katherine B. Payant supports this by stating that Celie “finds independence, hope, and ultimately transcendence”. through his love for women”[35]. The key example of one of these empowering female relationships is the sexual relationship between Celie and Shug. At the beginning of the novel, Celie is simply a vehicle for the desires and needs ofa predominantly male culture. In the physical sense, she is raped and sold to a husband who wants her more as a slave than a wife. He comes to see sex as something over which he at best has little say and at worst is used solely as a form of cruelty. However, through her homosexual passion for Shug, she discovers her hidden female sexuality and tends to enjoy not only the pleasures of her own female body, but of another woman's body. Furthermore, Celie and Nettie's relationship proves incredibly strong, as Nettie never gives up on her sister, and when Celie finally discovers Nettie's hidden letters she finds the strength to walk away from her domineering and abusive husband. The specific instincts of these female dynamics not only remain strong in the oppressed Celie, but are so strong that they ultimately provide her with the incentive to rebel against her husband, as is evident when she reflects on how she will "avoid killing him"[ 36 ]. In contrast, this sense of community is apparently much less prevalent in Wharton's The Age of Innocence. Olenska, the only female character who truly rejects conformity to the masculine orientation of American culture, actually shows her preference for male over female company. This is evident as he spends much of his time socializing with Newland and Julius Beaufort and little time socializing with women. Indeed, the other women in the novel prove just as critical of her nonconformity, if not more so. At the dinner table, during rude gossip about Olenska, Mrs. Archer says that "it was in better taste [for Olenska] not to go to the ball"[37], encouraging her to alter the topic of her gossip. However, Countess Olenska shows some loyalty to other members of her gender as she undermines Newland's male right to marry the woman of his choice while she rejects him out of pity for May. This highlights how she refuses to take away another woman's happiness to support her own or to support the desires of the male Newland. Upon discovering May's pregnancy, Olenska's decision to leave for Europe and completely cut ties with Newland is an example of her indirect female bond with May. He refuses to leave her alone as a single mother because, being a woman herself, she can empathize with the possibility of such a situation. While resisting losing their feminine virtues to integrate into a male-centered society, the women in Color Purple are shown using their feminine traits to fight the oppression that forces them underground. This is supported by Catherine E. Lewis who argues that “the common experiences of women that have too long been undervalued, such as domestic and manual labor, can be used to overturn the systems that have imposed and labeled tasks”[38] . In Celie's case, a primary example is sewing, which provides her with a means to channel her feminine creativity and artistic talent into garments that can be openly displayed. The quilt created by Celie and Sofia can be seen to represent the coming together of the underground female community, as they come together just as the needle joins the pieces of fabric to become part of a strong, whole and open female culture. Later, in one of Nettie's letters she tells how Corrine also made a quilt after hearing about Celie's quilting practice. This supports the previous claim that liberated women like Shug and eventually Celie can later liberate other women and bring them into their own culture. Nettie describes the fabric pieces used in making the quilt as she shares how Corrine “altered asquare of figures applied with a block of nine patches”[39]. The patchwork nature of the quilt suggests that, in addition to symbolizing female community, it may also represent symbolism for the integration of women, and even blacks, into the chauvinistic white culture of 20th century America. Much like the different colors and types of fabric displayed in the quilt, the inference is that both genders should be displayed equally and openly, with female culture helping to create the patchwork fabric of American society. Another way in which Celie's sewing serves as a means to combat male culture eclipsing female culture can be observed as she uses her skills to create a pair of pants. Indeed, Daniel W Ross suggests that “Celie's sewing associates her with a select group of female characters in American literature who use their art not to reveal their shame, as Freud suggests, but to transplant it, placing it in the right place – on their men's trousers." oppressors”[40]. Indeed, Daniel W. Ross argues that this woman who creates men's clothing overturns narrow gender roles and asserts that women's culture is not subordinate to men's culture. She states that Celie sewing is used as a means “to bind the sexes together so that both male and female can “wear the pants””[41]. On a more literal level, Celie channels her creative sewing skills into creating her own pant sewing business. This progression towards economic self-sufficiency is evidence of women's culture's liberation from obscurity, with its trousers being worn by men creating a powerful image of women's cultural activities such as sewing literally emerging to reclaim their place in the open society. The stitched fabric covers the male genitals, just as patriarchy had once obscured the female community. In The Age of Innocence, although on the surface May appears to be completely unaware of the fact that she is not free, or aware of the fact but accepting it to protect her marriage and fulfill her marital duty as expected of her, she can be seen as the character who actually reacts just like Olenska, but in a much more discreet and well-thought-out way. Like Celie, she uses domestic duties and imposed expectations to fight an underground war to support her husband. Mainly, May uses the expected female role of motherhood to her advantage. As Archer attempts to leave her, she reveals her pregnancy, implicating him in the unwanted duty of fatherhood. From this it can be deduced that she also used her virginal appeal to induce him to impregnate her, even if his heart is elsewhere. Indeed, the novel's determination leaves the audience with the suggestion that May had always intended to trap Newland, and her act of innocence is just a facade. Unlike Celie, who uses the abilities and tasks assigned to her by her feminine physique, May uses her intelligence and intuition. This idea culminates in the farewell party May throws for Olenska. On the surface this may seem like a proper farewell for her as she leaves for Europe, but for May and for Newland it is a celebration of May's victory. He plays on Olenska's conscience by revealing her pregnancy which convinces her to leave Newland with his wife and son. Here is a further suggestion that it is not only female culture that is marginalized but male culture as well, for just as women are expected to act as perfect, submissive wives, men are expected to choose one of these women rather than a more attractive one. but an unconventional woman. The Color Purple and The Age of Innocence portray the American culture of,