Positive philosophy emerged in a period of enormous social change. The American and French Revolutions, the consolidation of a powerful middle class, and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution all marked these social changes. Among the founders of the positivist school of thought and, according to some, the first modern sociologist was Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Count of Saint-Simon. Positivists focus on cause-effect relationships. Causality is established when three to five conditions are met: (1) the putative cause precedes the putative effect in time, (2) the putative cause and putative effect are empirically related to each other, and (3) empirical correlation observed between the presumed cause and the presumed effect are not spurious, i.e. the empirical relationship cannot be explained as due to the influence of some other factor or factors. A second difference is that positivists assume that criminals are fundamentally different from noncriminals, either biologically, psychologically, sociologically, or in some combination of all three. Positivists seek such differences through scientific investigation. When differences are detected, classifications or categories are created, such as criminal and non-criminal. Third, positivists assume that social scientists, including criminologists, can be objective or value-neutral in their work. Fourth, positivists often assume that crime is caused by multiple factors, such as hormonal imbalances, substandard intelligence, inadequate socialization or self-control, and economic inequality. Fifth, positivists believe that society is based primarily on consensus on moral values ​​but not on a social contract, as classical theorists believed. It has recently been stated that “the scientific study of crime actually began with biological theories at the end of the 18th century.” century”, and that “until the beginning of the 20th century, biological theories and criminology were practically synonymous”. Biological theories of the causation of crime are based on the belief that criminals are physiologically different from noncriminals. Early biological theories assumed that structure determined function. In other words, criminals behave differently because they are structurally different. The cause of the crime was biological inferiority. Biological inferiority in criminals was assumed to produce certain physical or genetic characteristics that distinguished criminals from noncriminals. Importantly, the same physical or genetic characteristics did not cause crime; they were only the symptoms, or stigmata, of the most fundamental inferiority. Psychoanalytic theories of crime causation are associated with the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and his followers. Freud did not theorize much about criminal behavior itself, but a theory of the causation of crime can be deduced from his more general theory of human behavior and its disorders..