Over the years, several models have been proposed to explain the nature of memory processes (e.g., Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Estes & Maddox, 1995; Raajimakers & Shiffrin, 1981). One of these models, the level of processing, proposed that how long information remains in memory depends on the depth to which it is processed, not the stage of memory in which it is retained. A study by Smith, Theodore, and Franklin (1983) examined this hypothesis by investigating how depth of processing affects the amount of processing achieved in processing a target item in a lexical detection task (LDT) by college students. The study asked 100 college students to make lexical decisions about the target after making the prime number decision. The result of the unexpected post-session recall test indicated that superior word recall depended on how the prime was processed, with the semantic decision (deep processing) resulting in greater facilitation than words whose processing was focused on visual or phonemic features (surface processing). Other studies (e.g., Gordon & Debus, 2002; Irwin & Lupker, 1983; Kearian, 1986) have found that the deeper the encoding of information, the longer lasting the memory. For example, Gordon and Debus have shown that contextual modification in teaching, task requirements, and assessment processes can increase college students' use of deep processing approaches to learning. They argued that the deep processing approach helps students' problem solving skills, while the use of shallow processing approaches results in study behaviors that lead to low-quality learning outcomes. This was in support of the earlier findings of Craik and Lockhart (1972) who assumed that the deep process...... half of the paper... Bulletin, 104, 53-69. Irwin, D., & Lupker, S. (1983). Semantic priming of pictures and words: A level of processing approach. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 245-260.Kearians, J. (1986). Visual spatial memory in Aboriginal and White Australian children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 38, 203-214. Raajimakers, J., & Shiffrin, R. (1981). Research on associative memory. Psychological Review, 88, 93-134. Smith, S., Glenberg, A., & Bjork, R. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. Memory and cognition, 6, 342-353. Smith, M., Theodore, L., & Franklin, P. (1983). The relationship between contextual facilitation and depth of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9(4), 697-712.Schulman, A. I. (1971). Recognition memory for targets from a list of scanned words. British Journal of Psychology, 62, 335-346.